Classical Music Is Not Any Piece of Music That Isn't Contemporary Pop, But What Is It?
So what makes music Classical? When you think about "classical music"what sounds pop into your head? Is it anything that doesn't have singing? But wait...what about choir music? Is it any music that has an orchestra? But wait...there's classical music that just piano? And what about movie music? Is it any music that you think is boring or old? Or any music without guitars or keyboards? What about marching bands? Those don't have guitars or keyboards? But what about Spanish flamenco music? That does but isn't exactly classical? Is it much you can't dance to? Or music your grandma likes? Or music that you listen to in school?
There are many possible answers to this question because when most of us talk about "Classical music," we mean music that isn't contemporary pop. It may include film scores performed by an orchestra like John Williams' Stars Wars (1977). We learned about Williams and Star Wars in Happy Star Wars Day! The Man Behind Its Music – John Williams. It may also include music of nineteenth composers, such as Fanny Mendelssohn, who we learned about in Women in the Arts – Fanny Mendelssohn: A Prodigious Talent. And, we may even mean music of of the twentieth century like music of Aaron Copland, who we learned about in our two preceding posts, Aaron Copland: Distinctly American Part One and Part Two. But to musicologists, music students, and professional musicians "Classical Music" is not just a general style of music, it is the music composed during a certain period of time. The Classical period of the arts lasted from approximately 1750 to 1820. Composers of the period include: Mozart, "Papa" Haydn, Clementi, Beethoven, and Schubert. The Classical period was preceded by the Baroque (1600 to 1750) and succeeded by the Romantic period (1820 to 1900).
Classical composers wrote music in a range of genres from the instrumental ones including: chamber music, the music of small ensembles, such as string quartets; solo keyboard works such as multi-movement piano sonatas; and orchestral works like symphonies. They also composed music for singers to perform in large productions with instrumental accompaniment such as operas or oratorios, choral music, and songs, etc. In this article, I will be focusing on what makes instrumental music "Classical."
Characteristics of Classical Music
The Classical period, or Classical style, derives its name from Neoclassicism, a movement that sought inspiration from the aesthetic philosophies of ancient Greece and Rome. During this era, artists and composers were deeply committed to principles of form, striving to achieve a sense of stability and wholeness in their works. Examples of Neoclassicalism that you may be familiar with include the monuments and buildings in Washington, DC, such as the Jefferson Monument [pictured above], paintings such as A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery by Joseph Wright of Derby (Sept. 3, 1734 – Aug. 29, 1797) [pictured below], as well as the writings of Voltaire (Nov. 21, 1694 – May 30, 1778). This period was marked by a focus on clarity, balance, and simplicity, contrasting with the more elaborate and ornate styles of previous periods. In music, this commitment to form and balance is evident in the clear, cantable (singable, even when purely instrumental) melodies and straightforward rhythms that characterize the era. Melodies are often scalar and designed to be easily memorable. Music is often homophonic with some polyphonic textures woven in on occasion to add depth and complexity. In fact, polyphonic genres, especially fugue reached their pinnacle during this period.
One of the hallmarks of Classical music is its emphasis on homophonic texture, where a single, prominent melody is supported by a chordal accompaniment. This texture is occasionally interspersed with polyphonic elements to provide contrast and interest. Musical development in the Classical period typically emerges from small, easily recognizable motives, which are elaborated upon and manipulated throughout the composition. Composers, such as Beethoven, took the manipulated of small motives to the extreme.
For example, Beethoven is renowned for his innovative use of a simple four-note motive that serves as the foundation for his entire Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67. This motive, often described as "short-short-short-long," consists of the a simple descending major third: G-G-G-Eb. Beethoven's genius lies in his ability to transform this seemingly simple motive into a complex and dramatic symphonic work. Rhythms are generally straightforward, with syncopation used sparingly for emphasis, as seen in the works of composers like Mozart and Clementi, as well as Beethoven. Listen to Beethoven's immortal Fifth and note how many times and in how many ways he employs the short-short-short-long motive.
Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67
Accompaniments during this period often feature chordal figurations, which contribute to the harmonic richness of the music. The form of compositions is largely driven by harmonic progression, with a strong focus on the dominant (V) to tonic (I) relationship, which provides a sense of resolution and stability. Additionally, dynamics, phrasing, and musical expression gained importance, adding nuance and emotional depth to the music. Prior to the Classical period, musical expression choices were generally left up to the performer(s). During the Classical period, composers began to take more control of how their music would be performed by giving clearer instructions through expression marks.
Among the various musical forms that emerged during the Classical period, the sonata-allegro form stands out as the most significant. This form, with its clear structure, balanced design and elaborate development, became a fundamental framework for composing instrumental music and greatly influenced the development of Western classical music into the 20th century. We discussed the sonata-allegro form in depth in Following the Musical Map Part Three: Sonata Form, but we will review
The Big "S" Sonata
The larger sonata is a pivotal larger form in the classical music tradition, representing a composition typically designed for one or more instruments. The most common instrumentation in the Classical period was for solo piano, however, many sonatas were composed for an instruemntal soloist with a piano acompaniment. Most of these duo sonatas were composed for violin and piano or cello and piano, however, they were composed for other soloists such as a solo flute with piano.
Historically, the word "sonata" comes from the Italian "sonare," meaning "to sound," meaning that music was played rather than sung. In the Classical era, the sonata evolved into a well-defined structure, typically including three or four movements. These movements are organized to present a varied and engaging musical journey, with each movement exhibiting its own unique character and formal design.
While the term "sonata" refers to the entire multi-movement work, "sonata-allegro" describes a specific structural pattern used mainly in the first movement. Sonata-allegro form is characterized by its exposition, development, and recapitulation, often concluding with a coda. This form is crucial for thematic development and contrast as well as establishing the home tonality within the sonata.
Structure of a Classical Sonata
A sonata is a larger form, a multi-movement work with three or four movements, each with its distinct tempo, character, and form, contributing to a cohesive musical experience. The forms of each of the individual movements are often:
First Movement: This movement often adheres to the sonata-allegro form, establishing the principal themes and tonality of the sonata. The sonata-allegro form consists of three main sections:
Exposition: Introduces the main themes, typically presenting two contrasting themes in different keys (tonic and dominant or relative major). The exposition introduces the listeners to the major characters (the themes) of the musical story and sets them on their journey from the first key area to the second.
Development: Explores and develops these themes, often breaking them into smaller motives. The development section is building to the climax of the musical narrative, creating tension through modulation and thematic transformation.
Recapitulation: Reintroduces the original themes, now both in the tonic key, resolving the harmonic tension. The recapitulation brings the main characters back to their home from where their story began now slightly changed but stable.
Coda: Concludes the movement, reaffirming the tonic key and providing a satisfying conclusion to the narrative.
Second Movement: Generally slower and contrasting with the first movement, this movement often follows ternary form (ABA) or theme and variations. Ternary form features a main theme (A), a contrasting middle section (B), and a return to the main theme (A). Theme and variations present a theme followed by a series of variations, showcasing the composer’s creativity.
Third Movement: Traditionally a minuet and trio or a scherzo. The minuet and trio is a dance-like movement in triple meter with a contrasting trio section, followed by a return to the minuet. The scherzo, a faster and more vigorous alternative, became popular in the later Classical and Romantic periods, especially in Beethoven's compositions.
Fourth Movement: Often in rondo form (ABACA) or sonata-rondo form (ABACABA), this final movement is lively and energetic. The rondo form features a recurring main theme alternating with contrasting episodes, providing a dynamic and engaging conclusion to the sonata.
Examples of Classical Sonatas
Listen to the following movements from three different sonatas by three different Classical Era composers, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Jan. 27, 1756 to Dec. 5, 1791), F. Joseph Haydn (March 31, 1732 to May 31, 1809), and Ludwig van Beethoven (c. Dec. 17, 1770 to March 26, 1827) and notice how each composer used the practices and techniques of the Classical era differently in their respective sonata movements.
Mozart’s Sonata in C Major, K. 545: Features a simple and elegant first movement in sonata-allegro form, a slow Andante in ternary form, and a lively Allegro in rondo form. In the first movement, we hear a very clear example of the sonata-allegro form. The first movement has a light-hearted mood and the bright choice of C major creates a sense of sonic purity and joy.
Movement I - Sonata-Allegro Form
Exposition: Introduces two main themes—the first in very clearly set in C Major is lively and rhythmic, and the second theme in G Major is more lyrical provides melodic contrast. This section sets up the key areas and provides a closing passage to end the exposition.
Development: Explores and transforms the themes from the exposition, creating tension through modulation and thematic variations before transitioning back to the tonic key.
Recapitulation: Revisits the primary and secondary themes, However, Mozart made the interesting choice to bring the first theme back in F major before reintroducing the second theme in the home key of C major. Mozart's choice to deviate from the standard form by preseneting the first theme in F major creates a sense of musical leviation, raising the listener up before setting them safely in the home key of C major.
Mozart’s Sonata in C major - Allegro
Haydn’s Sonata in E Minor, Hob. XVI:34: Includes a sonata-allegro first movement, a slow Andante in ternary form, and a minuet and trio, showcasing Haydn’s inventive approach. In the first movement, Haydn follows the sonata-allegro form and utilizes relative key areas to enhance its dramatic and expressive qualities. Although the sonata's home key is minor, the sonata feels light and hopeful rather than dramatic and serious. This optimistic mood is created by Haydn's choice of compound 6/8 meter and by how he plays with syncopations.
Movement I - Sonata-Allegro Form
Exposition: The exposition begins in E Minor with a syncopated primary theme. The transition modulates to the relative key of G Major, setting up the contrasting secondary theme. Haydn creates unity between the two themes by developing them both from the same motives. The exposition ends with a codetta in G major.
Development: In the development, Haydn explores and transformed the themes from the exposition, moving them through various key areas, including venturing into remote keys. This section creates harmonic tension and complexity, building anticipation for the return to the tonic key.
Recapitulation: In the recapitulation, primary theme in E Minor returns as expected, reestablishing the tonic key and resolving the tension. The secondary theme is also brought back in E Minor, maintaining thematic unity. The closing section concludes in E Minor, summarizing the material and providing closure.
Coda: The movement concludes with a repeated of the first phrase of the first theme that reinforces the tonic key (E Minor) and provides a resolution, but leaves our ears wanting to listen to the following movememtns.
Haydn’s Sonata in E minor - Allegro
Beethoven’s Sonata No. 8 in C Minor, Op. 13 ("Pathétique")
This sonata begins with a dramatic first movement with a slow introduction before launching into the passionate first movement in sonata-allegro form. That is followed by a songlike Adagio cantabile in ternary (ABA) form. This three movement sonata concludes with a vigorous Rondo. This sonata as a form allows composers to explore a broad range of emotions and styles while adhering to structured conventions. Each movement contributes uniquely to the overall narrative and expression of the sonata. The work is so successfully emotive by way of harmonic choices and extreme dynamics that Beethoven himself is thought to have given it the nickname "Pathétique," meaning "moving".
Movement III - Rondo Form
The finale is a dynamic and lively movement, structured in the Classical rondo form (ABACABA). It begins with a bold, memorable refrain (A section) in C minor that is related to the initial theme of the sonata's first movement. It is characterized by rhythmic drive and wide dynamic contrast. The contrasting episodes introduce new material that provides shifts in mood and key before returning to the refrain. The movement is technically demanding, showcasing virtuosic passagework and dynamic changes that contribute to its energetic and joyful character. It offers a striking contrast to the earlier, more somber movements of the sonata, providing a dramatic yet uplifting conclusion after the stormy first movement and contemplative second movement.
Beethoven's Sonata in C minor, Op. 13 - Rondo
The Classical Era Orchestra
During the Classical Era, not only did the musical forms and compositional choices develop, but the orchestra did as well, evolving into a more expansive and closer to the standardized ensemble we are familiar with today. The size of orchestras increased, incorporating a broader range of instruments, including pairs of woodwinds, brass, and a percussion section, alongside a more defined string section of first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, and double basses. Advances in instrument design, such as improvements to the woodwinds, and brass instruments, enhanced their tonal quality and playability. The original piano, the piano-forte, was also invented and quickly replaced the harpsichord as the standard keyboard instrument. As the roles of instruments and sections became more refined, large-scale symphonic works became some of the hallmarks of the era.
Mozart's Symphony No 41 ("Jupiter" Symphony) - Molto Allegro
For example, Mozart's Symphony No. 41 in C Major, K. 551, known as the "Jupiter" Symphony, showcases his masterful use of the expanded Classical orchestra. With its full complement of strings, woodwinds (including pairs of flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons), brass (two horns and two trumpets), and percussion (timpani), Mozart explores a wide range of timbres, dynamics, and musical textures. The symphony is particularly notable for its complex and majestic final movement, which features a sophisticated fugue demonstrating his advanced counterpoint skill. Mozart’s orchestration in this work enhances its dramatic impact and sets a high standard for symphonic writing, influencing future composers and exemplifying the sophisticated use of orchestral color and texture in the Classical era. See the previous article Classical Counterpoint for more about this work.
Chamber Music in the Classical Period
While the orchestra began to grow in size and scope during the Classical era, chamber music continued to flourish as composers embraced its intimate and expressive potential. This was the era when the string quartet (often credited to the innovations od Papa Haydn) emerged as a primary genre, typically consisting of two violins, a viola, and a cello, and was celebrated for its balanced dialogue and sophisticated interplay.
One example, Mozart’s String Quartet No. 14 in G major, K. 387, especially in its energetic first movement, Molto Allegro, demonstrates the Classical ideals of clarity and balance, employing sonata-allegro form to create a structured yet expressive musical conversation. Each instrument carries its own thematic material while contributing to a cohesive overall texture. The movement’s brisk tempo, dynamic contrasts, and meticulous development of themes highlight the Classical era’s emphasis on formal precision and collaborative interaction within chamber music. Mozart's work exemplifies how the string quartet was used to explore and showcase the intricate relationships between individual voices, while maintaining an accessible and elegant musical dialogue.
Mozart’s String Quartet No. 14 in G major, K. 387, Movement 1
Piano quartets and quintets also gained prominence, adding the newly expressive piano to the ensemble for a richer, more versatile sound. Additionally, the piano trio, combining piano with violin and cello, became a favorite for its blend of harmonic support and melodic opportunity. Other typical chamber music ensembles included brass and woodwind ensebles as well as other groupings that combined instruments from various familes, such as Septet in E-flat major for clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and double bass, Op. 20 composed by Beethoven in 1800 (based on sketches from 1799). These varied ensembles gave composers the ability to explore intricate musical conversations and thematic development in a more personal and nuanced manner, reflecting the Classical ideals of clarity, balance, and elegance.
Beethoven's Septet in E-flat major, Op. 20
Concluding Thoughts
Defining what makes music specifically "Classical" involves more than simply categorizing it according to its genre or instrumentation. While colloquially we might associate "Classical" music with orchestras, choirs, or even film scores, the term "Classical" specifically refers to a musical style and tradition associated from a distinct Western historical era. This era, known as the Classical period, spanned from 1750 to 1820. Many of the most performed composers such as Mozart, F. J. Haydn, and Beethoven were living and working during this period in history.
The arts of Classical period are characterized by the emphasis on clarity, balance, and formal structure. Music from this era adheres to specific structural conventions, such as the sonata-allegro form, and is notable for the development and continued refinement of genres like the symphony and chamber music. These conventions reflect a commitment to formal precision and expressive balance, setting them apart from the more complex, ornate, yet less personal music of the preceding Baroque period.
Musch of the music of Classical period is homophonic in texture, with a clear melodic line that is supported by a subordinate accompaniment. This contrasts sharply with the largely polyphonic textures of Baroque music, where multiple independent lines intertwine. However, polyphonic sections still show up in Classical works with some of the finest counterpoint ever composed being composed during this period. Additionally, the Classical era saw innovations in orchestration and the expansion of instrumental roles, which contributed to its fuller sound and forever altering the course of Western music.
Understanding these stylistic and historical contexts helps to differentiate Classical music from other genres and periods–even from those they may seem to be "classical" to listeners today. It allows us to appreciate the lasting impact that the Classical period has had on the development of Western musical traditions and its influence on music from the 19th century and beyond.
Mini Viennese Exercise: Compose a Basic Piece in the Classical Style
Let's compose a piece in the Classical style. (See the videos below.)
Begin with a simple melody that is mostly scalar but may include some jumps that follow triads. You may wish to use a melody such as a familiar folk song, children's song, or compose your own.
Next, harmonize it with diatonic chords, emphasizing the dominant (V) to tonic (I) relationship.
Then create a chordal figuration pattern and combine the melody and harmony.
Note: A common style of accompaniment in the Classical period is called Alberti Bass. It is the style of accompaniment Mozart used in the Sonata in C major above. Alberti Bass consists of a arpeggiated or broken chord, where the notes of the chord are presented as lowest, highest, middle note, and highest. This pattern will be repeated throughout a piece of a section of a piece. Alberti Bass got its name from Italian Baroque composer and performer, Domenico Alberti (c. 1710 – Oct. 14, 1746) who did not invent but popularized the technique.
Finally, add emotion to your piece by adding dynamics, tempo indicaitons, ornaments, and any other relevant score markings.
Extra Step: Go back through your piece and further embellish it. Some ways you can do this include: re-harmonize or add more complex harmony such as secondary dominants, augemented sixth chords, Neopolitan sixth chords, etc; incorporate more non-chord tones such as passing tones, anticipations, and suspensions; use more complicated rhythms and perhaps syncopations. In the same way that Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven all have their own way of expressing themselves while all writing in the Classical style, so do you! It's up to you to make musical choices that reflect your personal style, keep your piece engaging, and make your composition your own. Have fun!
Feel free to share you pieces by emailing janae@perennialmusicandarts.com or by tagging @perennialmusicandarts on Facebook, Instagram, or Tiktok. I look forward to hearing what you create!
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Janae J. Almen is a professional music instructor, composer, sound artist, and writer. She has a BA in Music/Education from Judson University and a MM in Computer Music/Composition from the Peabody Institute of the Johns Hopkins University. She is the founder of Perennial Music and Arts and is passionate about sharing her love of music and arts.
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